WORLD ARCHITECTURE 1500-1600

CONSTANTINOPOLE BECOMES ISTANBUL

After the war Ottomans took the city of Constantinople and named it Istanbul, Sultan Mehmed allow non-Muslim nations to stay in peace and he order to build markets of Kapalı Carsı which had square capped with rounded. The Bedesten a fortified combined for luxury goods. In the two decades the population of Istanbul doubled and over the years it become the largest city of the world again. Art and science was important for the young sultan and he brought artist and scientists from Italy to Istanbul and the capital showed the influence of Italian engineering for example golden gate, star shaped fort of Yedikule, the round towers of Rumeli Hisarı. The young Sultan considered the majestic Hagia Sophia as his greatest prize and he quickly converted this huge church to a royal mosque with adding minarets. Apart from the changing in architecture, there was a political message he wanted to give this to European countries.

                                   (Plan of Constantinopole)

(Illustration of Constantinopole)

Sultan Mehmed built the Fatih mosque in Bursa. It has a different type when we compare with others, It followed the hypostyle model found throughout south Asia. This mosque occupied the center of a extensive, perfect square plaza.

Sultan Mehmed decided to move his palace into the city where the acropolis of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium was stood. The design of Topkapı palace contained willfully asymmetry and more like a garden than a building it had a powerful relations between the nature and the framed views Bosporus landscapes made Topkapı more close to a Chinese Scholar’s garden than to the geometrically coordinated Italian Palazzo. Topkapı palace organized on a transition part of three courts which were integrated and elaborated throughout the 16^th century. The imperial gate into the first stood a few steps from the apse of Hagia Sophia. There are numerous and various freestanding pavilions into the middle gate. Topkapi Palace which brings together the richest collection of Ottoman tiles and decorative arts, is truly a living museum. The most important part of the palace was the Diwan. Because the empire was managed in this council hall, stand out into the northwest courtyard of the arcade. Behind the Diwan lay the Harem, Harem was a collection of small and added courts also densely packed chamber on three levels, providing the residence for the Sultan’s female slaves. Relation to outside of Harem supplied by ‘ Araba Gate’, when they enter the gate from outside , they usually pass through the part of the slave’s master part which is also located in the Harem territory. Fatih’s Harem was substantially reconstructed in the 16^th century during the long reign of Suleyman. During this period named as Reign of Women by historians because of the Hürrem and Mother Queen of Suleyman, Ottomans built an apartment in the northern corner of the Harem. The L shaped series of rooms was beautifully tiled, each room has a loftydome. 

(Topkapı Palace)

(Plan of the Topkapı Palace)

SINAN THE ARCHITECT

Sinan was the greatest architect of the Ottoman renaissance 1490-1588. Only in Istanbul he designed 22 major mosques and also imarets, He traveled a lot in this huge empire and he learned the solutions of engineering too so this knowledge allow him to design amazing bridges and transport ships too. Sinan started to work with Hürrem’s order ad he covered the mosque with a single hemispherical dome and designed a hospital with an unusual octagonal court, we can see amazing harmony in his construction all time like the Şehzade mosque. Sinan abutted the central dome with four semi domes and four buttress towers capped with vaults .Another important work of Sınan for the Ottoman architecture is that the earliest restoration of Hagia Sophia belongs to Mimar Sinan. This is the reasons why this great monumental mosque still survive till today.

(Haseki mosque )

PAPAL ROME

The ancient Rome architects inspire to Renaissance architects a system of symmetry, harmonious proportions, and decorative columns which they either copy to improve their architectural approach. The group that includes the famous artist Michelangelo presents their projects for churches, streets, palaces and villas promoted the city’s pilgrim trade while boosting the dynastic ambitions of papal families. The events that happen in religious rule in the Europe had two major results in architecture; first one is, it encouraged the development of new trials and regulations for fortification and urban design in reaction to the mobile cannon. The second thing is that, many of the designers who are under the pressure of the Papal Rome immigrated to other cities, taking with them the Roman language of classic architecture.

The ideologues of the Papal regime introduced theatrical papal ceremonials, luxurious costumes and new architectural settings or reconstruction of them, maybe the greatest example of this article is Pope Nicholas V who initiated the greatest project, demolition and rebuilding of old St. Peters rather than restore the basilica, Pope ordered the architect Bernardo Rossellino to demolish and rebuild the apse.

The Project of new palace Via Alessandrina started in 1501 and it served as the site for a few of the most sophisticated classical palaces in Rome. It appeared urbane because it has placed close to the Florentine ideal of civic beauty; this palace offered the model of urban scale for the new streets too.

Ferdinand and Isabella commissioned to build a small domed shrine in Montoria in 1502. This reconstruction resembled an ancient round tholos-type temple. The carrying system set up with 16 columns these systems, sculpted metapes and tall drums revealed a new taste of plasticity

 

WORLD ARCHITECTURE 1350-1500

In this age ancient Greek and Roman culture reborn with the usage of symmetry, correct proportions and classical columns which are taken from the best examples of that period like popes in Rome (Pius II).

Children educated far beyond the time in Italy and situation effected the architecture too, Architects followed, discovering harmonious proportions linked to the classical orders. Humanism which is taught at very young ages in schools started to affect palaces and churches so this situation changed the character of the Italian cities. The rebirth of ancient art and architecture not only carried an aesthetic agenda but also implied the restoration of a lost ideal of social and political order.

In Late fourteenth-century rounded arches, symmetrically placed bays, and harmonious proportions based on whole numbers such as 1.1, 1.2, and 2.3 used in Florence. The emergence of perspective vision participated the development of the principal pub and this is a new way of seeing treating buildings as freestanding objects in proportional space.

Florentine had to rebuild their central bridge after flood in 1333, its scale is a new standard for the city like its symmetry. The architect used the new technique segmental arches between the piers, these arches is extraordinary when we compare it with the usual technique there are 3 arches rather than 5 and these arches appeared flatter than a rounded arch but had the same strength.

STRUCTURE OF THE DOME OF FLORENCE

The dome which is designed by Brunelleschi rises on a double-shell structure. He used horizontal and vertical ribs which help to observe the lateral forces Brunelleschi also initiated the pan in the 1420s to re build the church of San Lorenzo over the nave other family architects placed a flat coffered ceiling.

THE FLORENTINE PALAZZO; ARCHITECTURE AS A CIVIC DUTY

With the sponsored Wealthy Florentines, the city appeared the most orderly city with well-paved and drained streets or monumental civic buildings and cubic palaces.

LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI; HUMANIST AND ARCHITECT

It was obvious for everyone his sympathies lay clearly with the republican ideal of moderation to conncet two different levels he used reversed curves with extended scrolls. When he took the job of rebuilding the thirteenth century church of Sa Francesco, he put fluted half columns on the façade of temple and the upper part of the church façade remained unbuilt due to the patron’s fall from the power.

Pienza

Composing the views of the cities in a harmonious way is a new approach for Renaissance period in Italy. Placing the constructions like palaces or baptisteries in a homogenous way to the gridded piazza served this idea. The selection of these buildings was crucial like the scales among these constructions, the ideal city which is in the mind of these artists doesn’t have any castle type buildings, walls or ghetto residential areas for poor persons. The key which assisting this purpose was using common colonnades and outer covering in order to grouping and also separating. Dante’s idea cylindrical structure with a central court while going up to look back at the star-shaped city with a privileged perspective.

 

 

 

EUROPE AFTER THE ROMAN EMPIRE & WORLD ARCHITECTURE 1200-1350

 

Charlemagne; The revival of the Roman Empire and Role of the Monasteries

In a chapel of Aachen, court was inspired from Byzantine design approach in especially in Ravenna. In arch surfaces, black and white parts were preferred for the first time distinctively. We see this composition in Mosque of Cordoba later. The church was outstanding with the plan two directional.

 

The Norman Invasions; An architectural Cross-Fertilization

Four thick pillars used in the sheer facade of the churches. Twin tower and ribbed vaults became usual element to utilize in France and England. The motte was a raised mound with wooden palisade walls and bailey was an enclosed area at the ground of the mound.

The Pilgrim’s Progress; Rome and Compostela

The changes in architecture increased in that period like new vertical element campanile and excluding decorative porches etc. In France there were aisled basilicas which have roofed with barrel vaults. In Compostela, orthogonal tower carried diffused light to center of the church.

Venice

Venice called the city without land, it grew as a classter which is occurred by 60 islands. In Venation architecture Byzantine and Islamic styles have powerful traces like stilled arches windows, floriated merlins. The lack of land in Venice encouraged unique class structure having neither a landed nobility.

Venation palaces combined commercial functions and ware houses on the ground floor and living functions above. Venations also had a variety of window styles and asymmetric placements which assists different purposes.

 

Gothic Europe the City Returns;

Hospital of Notre-Dame built in 1250-1293, a long covered with a wooden barrel vault, terminating with a small chapel. Urban perimeters fattened with concentric layers linked by radial streets that converged on an administrative and economic hub.

By the end of the 13^th Bruges had rebuilt its walls a gigantic oval enclosing the two earlier rings. The city also its canal system and constructed several significant civic monuments.

Between 1119 and 1228 aristocratic patrons sponsored a dozen market towns, each structured on a broad central street. Then they built a cross axial second street, they grey in a linear progression.

 

The Beguinage

A unique social institution serving as a shelter for unwed women. These small houses placed a covered wall and gathered informally around a large park and served by a church. During the thirteenth and fourthteenth centuries the building boom in European cities nurtured the new gothic style in church building. The interior of the church with its spindly members and stained glass windows, would become the means to achieve the new light called as lux nova which means transcendent metaphor for Christs.

 

WORLD ARCHITECTURE 800-1200

               Indian merchants spread their religions and architectural methods to Southeast Asia. By the eleventh century the dynasties in the south of the India kept pace with the gigantic structures of the Khmer. Same process happened in Spain then it is under the rule of Islam, Abd al-Rahman I brought his memories of the glories of Damascus to Cordoba. The Umayyad monuments like Great Mosque of Cordoba, inspired the architectural programs of a series of rulers in the taifa states of the Spain and the Berber regimes.

• SOUTHEAST ASIA AND SOUTHERN INDIA

Societies in Asia considered their politic order as a hierarchical order and they create an architectural program in the cosmos. They designed monumental architectural in a proper way to this idea. Designer used Mandala diagrams to plot their works. Mandala generated the complex order of temples which followed symmetrical order around a central vertical axis. The architects used number 15 to hold a particular fascination when used in the nine square diagram. Mandalas inspired the composition of complex symbolic landscapes such as the great temples of Barbour and Angkor Wat. This style help to demonstrate the political regime with deep religious meanings. When the society built a grand pyramidal composition to focus on axis mundi, the sacred center of the world.

In India Buddhists and Hindus used Mandala diagrams, the lava stone Borobudur completed in the 3 dimensional Mandala perception, it presented a concentric succession of the geometric leading from the rented squares of the four outer platforms.

Designers used corbel techniques for the rounded arches placed over the stairs, they have no function but it is a way to solve the concern of finding a way to brace the mass of the outer terraces from sliding outward. Every level of the Borobudur represents scenes of the Buddha’s life with his sculptures.

The representation of cosmos placed in the real world Angkor with its dozens of temples, canals, sculptured-lined causeways. This city borrowed the Hindu and Buddhist religious traditions and Chinese system of monarchy. The process of showing the legends in design is the same in Khmer like Egypt, Egyptians built a stone lined basin at Karnak to represent the afterlife and the source of life, The Khmers described their origins in a cosmic sea whipped into life by the tail of Nagy.

The Khmer sponsored 2 types of temples; terrace type and pyramid type. Both followed the Mandala pattern, framing a core of symmetrical organized galleries etc. Angkor Wat is the only temples which is oriented to west to honor the god. The causeway across the moat, beyond this point the elevated causeway continued on axis. The central pyramid of Angkor Wat spread on a cruciform base. The grand spaces, perfect geometry of the monuments showed the dwelling spaces for the common areas in Angkor. The typical dwellings resembled the vernacular houses one still finds in region, raised on wooden stilts with an elevated living level enclosed by reed walls and covered with banana leafs.

• ISLAMIC SPAIN AND MOROCCO

With the grand palaces and mosques of Cordoba, the symbolic thought of Islamic rule spread across southern coasts of the Mediterranean. They perfected the kinetic effects of interlacing arches and vaults with star shaped ribs.

  (MOSQUE OF CORDOBA)

Islam set up its autocratic regime but for 3 centuries fostered a brilliant cultural synthases combining ancient Greek, Byzantine and Islamic. The city mount up with mosques, markets, schools, hospitals and hammams. The hypostyle hall of the great Mosque of Cordoba produced incomparable kinetic effects due to hundreds of arches poised gracefully on rows of columns. During the ninth century the mosque extended eight bays to toward the bridge. Three domes made with ribbed arches covered the area of the great mosque of Cordoba. The most ornate stood over the bay in front of the mihrab chamber. These sophisticated ribbed structures lightened the load of the domes.

In 21th century when the Alhomads spread their rule in Morocco for approximately 100 years, seeking correct manner through Islam of their predecessors by using greater retrenchment. They have started to demolish the mosques and palaces like Almoravid and Marrakech which are the symbols of luxury and corruption but then 10 years later Alhomads rebuilt the mosque with using the same plan but only difference was correcting the Degree of qıbla axis. The nave leading to mihrab contains domes and muqarnas which are customary decorations. Same prince moved the capital of the empire to Rabat where he dreamed to built the largest Mosque in the entire world. His Hassan mosque stand more than 1 km. Only half of the minarets intended 80m height. The Alhomads took their power on the region for another half century but during this period their architectural patronage started to slow down because of the problems on the conquered territories. Ummayud regime started to lose power and city states period happened in Spain but only the Nasrid dynasty succeeded independent Islamic pricipates until the 15th century. In the Almeria emir’s court placed which is the largest of Islamic fortress in Spain. This court had ship-shaped outline and finished in a square castle.

 

 

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 600-800

Indian temple buildings used this carved out technique from the first to the eighth centuries with carving stone cliffs, this technique requires strategic organization because of the supporting systems if you move one element it is really hard to replaced according to the organization of the construction. Between the fourth and fifth centruies rock-cut method reached the most developed times in Gupta’s rule. The dynasty attempted to revive the extent of Ashoka’s empire, returning to many of Mauryan projects.

Buddhist sponsored projects for chaitya halls and viharas across the northern and central regions of india but few were built in permanent materials. In chaitya hall we can see the twenty seven columns, simple posts without bases and also this deign gives the sense of direction to the main object. The upper part and also the ceiling made of wooden.

 

 

Mandapa is a space define in those times, Vihara monasteries at Ajanta included a hypostyle assembly space.

In Baghdad, The Round city, under the second Abbasid rule, curvy center area and market streets leading to the four major gates caliph’s palace and the mosque placed in this covered area but the other ones placed outside of this selected area.

In reconstruction of the Caliph’s palace we can easily see the garden and haram parts also mosque and the great court planned orthogonally in the design .In great mosque of Kairouan, the alignment of the minaret stands in symmetry with the outer wall but falls to one side prayer hall’s axis.

Ahmed Ibn Tulun eliminate the Abbasid power, he created a new palace district at al qatai and furnished it with courtyard gardens, an aquaduct, hippodrome, and barracks for his 10.000 loyal troops. While the first two centuries of Islamic design pursued strict geometry order of cities, palaces and mosques.

 

 

The typical Urban neighborhood or herat gathered around a blind alley its entry controlled by a trusted member of the community. The herats then attached one to another in clusters with no overall geometric coordination.

 

TANG CHINA AND EAST ASIA

After the china broke down, into two, Tang emperors rebuilt the gridded capital of Chang’an which is the world’s largest city. After they announced that the Buddhism is the common religion in that region Buddhist monasteries, pagodas, and colossal rock-cut statues appeared as a new architectural programs in China.

The Sui created infrastructure system by piecing together various canals into the Grand Canal which is the world’s longest artificial waterway. It is serving as a transition part between the north and the south.

In the Buddhist temples the structure rose on a stone terrace reached by balustered side stairs. The plan followed modular column system although the placement of the columns seen as a gridal system they are actually follow the concentric series of rectangles. In the temples the central space defined by two rows of five columns. The five tiers of the brackets equaled half the height of the columns.

Korean and Japanese architects developed Chinese models into new forms that represented their respective national identities. In those times Korean cities imitate the strict grid plan of Chinese city plans with great broad avenues.

 

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 300-600

In the fourth century Roman Empire broke into two as east and west Roman Empire. Constantine the first Christian emperor of the east romans began to build churches and baptisteries after he made Constantinopolis the capital rather than Rome. Christianity, which survived the publication of the novel, began to spread during this period and supported it with architecture, Constantine built churches, basilicas etc. wherever he conquered. In that time this sprawling was very important for Byzantines because they described people as ‘Barbar’ those who did not speak the same language as themselves.

(Constantine I)

 In this period the great church Hagia Sophia took attention because it is considered as a new type of monument. Hagia Sophia Focused on the interior side, when Roman Empire Vigorously oppose to Christianity they improvised churches in basements and frequented underground catacomb cemeteries as ritual meetings places but interesting thing is that even the emperor made the Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, its cult buildings continued to maintain a low profile. From my own observations, I saw a church with caved rocks where Christians escaped from the pressure of Roman Empire. They encouraged the practice of rock-cut cave structures for Buddhist and Hindu halls.

(Hagia Sophia)

In this Article the part Emperor Diocletian is crucial (284-305). He made drastic efforts to salvage the empire’s disintegrating structure. He retired in his birthplace ‘ Spalato’ in his little palace  near this coast. Little palace organized like a military cestrum on cross-axis inside a nearly perfect square set of walls, his palace had three entry gates on the west, adding colonnades rather than arches is a break of the classical tradition in that time. Diocletain’s architects inserted an arch into the pediment between the two central columns, creating a fastigium.

(Diocletian Palace in Split/Crotia)

Almost every emperor of Roman Empire showed and dictated their power with using architecture which become tradition from ancient times, in this point; maybe we can separate Constantine from Diocletain because Constantine tried to set the order of Christianity which was a totally new thing and culture for his lands. Constantine’s chief rival, Maxentius promoted his claim to power through the lavish patronage of public project like new basilica, hippodrome, restoration of the Senate house and temple of Venus. After Constantine’s departure from Rome in 326, the city slowly revolved the power to the churches so the church survived as the only viable institution. Constantine produced the first Roman city plan to include churches as primary urban components in this period domes becomes the prominent symbols of Christionality the importance of domes is explained in the header of this article ‘the dome as an act of faith’ we can understand his in the war of Ravenna, after Byzantines regained Ravvenna, they completed several exceptional churches including the dome of San Vitale.

 

WORLD ARCHITECTURE II

Etruscans are actually blend of the Greek and Italian culture, there are some architectural structures and elements that Etruscans use like they built massive defensive walls as we see in the bronze age, also  they used arch and vault too. But then Romans conquer the Etruscans and a knowledge accumulation began to affect another culture as always.

Romans developed their temple architecture by repeated Etruscan frontal orientation besides Romans took the arches and vaults directly from the Etruscan architects who are very significant for their time.

In that time maybe the one of the most one of the heated discussions is between senate and the lower clusters of the public. Chosen 4 hills of the 7 hills bounded the Roma Forum and with this adaptation, forum took shape of the valley. In previous article we read that the Agora is the place where people gather and discuss, Roma forum has the same purpose but in architectural manner Roma Forum has denser column use to give the sense of closeness so it means that to create enclosures.  We also see the form of the planning in Romans that we have seen in Greece before, Romans learned and used the orthogonal urban design from Greek colonies (right angled surveying technique).If the topography that was not previously used was chosen as an area where construction will begin, romans placed their cities as cross axis, this is a tradition comes from their religion. We see this design plan very often, and then it reveals the shape of the grid some parts like military camp etc. place in this strict grid.

 The oldest known basilica of the Roman Empire is The Basilica of Pompeii. The basilica of Pompeii is dated at the end of the second century B.C.  From the middle of the stairs rose a line of four columns to carry the roof.
The building’s main hall is surrounded by a corridor and it is composed of a long columnar nave. The existence of continuous windows on the upper walls proved with the understanding of the powerful thrust of the columns of the nave.

 In this period Romans used the heating system under the ground first time and it supply some advantages like blocking the bad smell and smoke when we compare this new system with the older system. These baths gain importance in Roman daily life because they used as a cultural centers and social areas. After a while they used terra-cotta pipes as a new heating system. There are small baths which roman calls Balnae but of course there are some great baths like Diocletain and Caracall. Diocletain was an illustration to Roman vaulted style architecture. With transporting the hot water they heated the ground and they used these developed systems. According to the information about Roman decoration I can easily say that ıt was inevitable to give the importance to the beauty because they were already well developed in construction. They covered walls with narrative scenes and mythological figures.

WORLD ARCHITECTURE 700-200 BCE

What is the way to influence people in total? Victories on battle field or distributing justice? For the king of Persia Zargon the way to succeed this is build massive buildings.In his period Persian Architects build big palace and ziggurat which have the design of asymmetric entrance to prevent direct transition through inside.

There are narrow and long rooms made of unbaked mudbrick and to give the sense of this directional sense and there is no column use in this structure to support this idea. It is also possible to see the drainage system. Another quality of this space is that the daylight comes from courtyard and reaches through the palace.  When the King Sargon dies his son left the city and chose another capital for the persians ‘Nineveh’. But in this period Persians are getting away from their old glory days according to these situations Sargon the second takes back the throne and sets a new capital called ‘City of Sargon’. The palace of the city of Sargon is similar to the pharaoh palaces in Egypt from the aspects of the scale and the monuments like Sargons. It is not easy to tell the size of this city. The walls of the city is long enough to surround the city of Ur 4 times and Hattusha 2 times. It is crucial to give information about the city of Persia, the city of Dur-Sharrukin, this is the first city after Egypt which use the city plan and orthogonal sense of city designing. This is not the only effects of persians on the architecture, in Aegean the Athens made monuments like Parthenon temple to show the spraying Persians with the war.Athens used the wealth that they gain after the war against Persia for infrastructure too.
When Persia conquered the west Asia, this region was already a region that had been dominated by different cultures for years that’s why there was developed cities with city gates and beautiful streets. In Persian period they tried to spread Hellenistic perception in all around the region. 

The cultural diversity of the empire (Persia); Assyrian monster figures, Greek lonic volute and Egyptian cornices are the examples of this. Persian Ziggurats are the longest buildings in the world. They made Esagila Temple, it is dedicated to god Mardak. It stood across the professional way to the south directly on axis with stairs of Entemenonki. For the ritual importance they set in smaller enclosure. In this period palace of Nebuchadnezzar is 3 times bigger than the Sargon’s palace and longer than the most cities. Nebuchadnezzar is also stood apart from the major cult cities directly to the north, it is because of the growth as an agglomeration of existing palaces with additions spilling over the earlier city walls. Colorful bricks and peaceful floral patter have been used in the palace. After this giant palace the taxes become suffering for the people and also the war with Babylon forced them to create city of Persepolis. Persepolis is surrounded by the defensive walls. The city included a gate house and a fire temple for religious rituals.

Second Hypostyle hall the hall of 100 columns, used them thinner than the Greek constructions. Density of the columns and decorated capitals created rhythm amid the great emptiness of the space. It is based on the idea of the load of the rooms spread through the exterior columns but support with the interior columns.

The next part of the article is about Pan-Hellenic cult sites.Like in Delphi and Olympia there are city states which have independent but of course common religion. All religious symbols shown individualistic. In Delphi rules consulted there before decisions winding path lined with small temples to the temple situated for obliquely seen experience. In this period there is a dialogue between the architecture and the nature that’s why architects give importance to the visual connection. In this Hellenistic age material of wood converted to stone. And they continued to build Greek temples with steep roof and two column. Wrapping both the exterior and interior spaces with columns is a approach which is going to be perfect later.

Greek temples are also very colorful in these days. Refinements started to be considered as a new degree of artistry, gently arched the ground plane towards center because straight seem to deflect from a distance expressing the load bearing structure. Rise of the ‘stylobate’ and ‘entasis’ of columns easily detected.

GREEK CITY-STATE

Ancient Greek architecture it the Source of classism. Architecture includes proportional composition and repertoire of decoration which have sculpted columns, entablatures and pediments. Unlike the other cultures Greeks has been revived the styles by variety of cultures. City states (polis) designed with this new architectural perception because in Greek system there was a democratic atmosphere like public debates. According to this they created spaces for dialogue like the agora the stoa, senato house, theater, even the Greek temple. Alexander the great support Greek way and used the Greek classism to unite the rest of the world with Helen culture.Greek city states matured during the 6^th BCE, They were not build to the direct ruler of the empires like palaces, tombs etc. for the Egypt Assyria or Persian kings, Greeks reached the top level of the democracy and they built meeting areas for citizens. The name of Polis came from The Politics.

Synoikismos means living together and the polises have been created according to this opinion. There were lots of different indipented polises like Olympai,Delphi,sparta etc because of the lack of strict rules, but the greek polises were able to act together in emergencies like Persian attacks. This colonization spread Sicily,Italy and the coast side of Turkey. Union of Synoikismos called Acropolis which spread casually outward along radial paths. Acrapolis serve to the Mycenaean princes and political focus shifted away from the Acropolis as the Aristotale said; acropolis is the level ground of democracy.

Agora is the undetermined space in the city to gather people this situation is quite different from other empires because in other cultures people usually gather in front of the palace.It slope up gently in one direction of the acropolis and while bounded by stone markers or ‘horoi’ did not have a set shape. Open spaces of the greeks proved more interactive than the cult space of Babylon.

The major streets of Athens crossed the agora which is the house of religious ceremonies, athletic organizations,theatre and market functions. The new urban plan used for Agora. Expansion set three different sized grids occurs this urban plan and between the grids there were natural changes in topography.

In Greek theatres there is a Circular play space served for their performances and also curved shape seats for audiences and these part has cooperation with the landscape.

In the houses of Olynthus is different than the houses of the Priene. All houses are the same to give the sense of equality in Priene but hierarchy used in houses too like every part of the life in Olynthus. In this period rebuilding of Athens because of the war is important, Pericles proposed construction of buildings with public works.First reconstructions began with Port of Piraeus ( it is very effective and useful for economy and military), in this reconstruction process plans used.

The most crucial architectural projects in time;

Repositioning of the Propylaia, new temple of victory, Athena Nile, Directly to the south; rebuildings of the Parthenon and store etc.

6 columns shaped Propylaia but there are lots of interesting approach for that time. The area between the 2 central colons divided into 3 different from the familiar 2 parts. Designing something that is unusual is considered as a signature of the architect to show his importance for that days.

 

ARCHITECTURE 1500-750 BCE

In ancient times, war is the one of the factors that affects urbanization. Empires built their structures with rocks to make them resistant and safe. They regard to design defensive structures rather than considering more social living areas. Today’s Turkey was placed in rocky landscape in those days. In this part of article mentioned the ısland of Crete actually it has a peaceful society and women have big roles in the religion and government. In those days there is no direct circulation so this composition occurred labyrinths. In my opinion indirect roads and complicated city plan may be one of the precautions which has been taken against the enemies especially coming from the sea. Briefly war threat obviously affected the architectural design perception in those days for example colossal status, hypostyle halls and longitudes immense pylons.

Turkey, Greece and Crete have lots of similar religious figures and qualities. They also used the religious perception in their architecture. We see the first urban lifestyle in Crete and Gournia in those times. Temple of Crete consists of bull central court, entrance, rooms, walls and theatral area. In bull central court there is no transition directly to the labyrinth, stairs and balconies placed front of the court to prevent the symmetry. This bull court is a perfect rectangle and this rectangular shape is also the same in other temples too. 

There is a U shape in the entrance of the temple so it guides you easily. While creating this part they took references from the labyrinth. There are lots of entrances but almost none of these entrances have a connection with the court.

They designed thick, massive walls in order to use it as a defensive shield besides they did not use any Windows into this walls to serve for the same purpose.

The labyrinth of Knoss rises 4 times with rooms more than 1000. Directions have different meanings for them for example North is for workshop and bakeries, South is for homes etc. Finally in the theatral area there is again a thick Wall but this time it is a precaution for natural disaster, it is gathering space before visiting inner area of temple and also it has a L shape design. Another interesting and important usage is light condition. They used light to give openness sense and freshness to the top floor rooms.

Mycenae: Cyclopean walls and Megaron palaces; Minoan gave way to Mycenaen conqueror. But Architectural approach is never changed it is not totally different. Designers created predominantly lithic, solid and hierarchical structures based on military. Another information from those times is that Myceneon houses do not have Windows which connects you to the nature. In those times masons used metal tools for heavy wooden Gates.

Previously I mentioned the landscapes of the territories, during the 13th century Mycena collapsed because of drought, climate change and uprisings etc. According to these information’s I can easily say that nature protects and destroys people because landscapes also forms served as defense during this period.

They designed tunnel to supply clear water and they combined the walls curved with using corbel technique.

King/Queen: Hatshepsut

She ruled Egypt for 21 years, she emerged as the most intriguing and artistically influential patron of Karnak. She sponsored numerous temples and monuments including the shrine of Amon-Ra at Karnak. Senenmut was her chief architect and at those times people called him as greatest of the great. Senenmut made lots of great Works for his queen. His architecture directly related with the managing power of the Hatshepsut but after her death, her successors destroyed and erased the signs of her patronage at Karnak due to the oppositions of masculine authority. Although there were traces of powerful queens in ancient cultures, she is the first historically documented women ruler. She used architecture and religion to bolster her rule. Another important structure of those times has been made by her father’s architect Inenmy. Inenmy design pylon gateways, although from the central axis, the hall would have appeared symmetrical but the number of the columns and their placement different in North and south axis.

Hastshepsut changed the concept of the White chapel which is constructed around 1920 BCE  to red chapel. With changing it to narrow hall, open ends and rectangular chambers. In ancient Egypt Axis have important meaning for their people because it was their tradition. Hierarchical symbols and the figures were different for example In Amon-Ra temple east-west axe represents cosmic time placed and named with the condition of the sun in that hour.  After Hatshepsut’s death her stepson Thutmose started to destroy her monuments and erased her name in public.

ARCHITECTURE IN PRE HISTORY II

 

Between 3000-1500 BC. Urban composition appeared in different points in the world for example Egypt, Mesopotamia etc. Each area had a private and specific condition and also in those ages they don’t have that much communication among cities and kingdoms like today. All these information proved that these are some reasons why they have different and separate religious and political perspectives and rules.

In these ages religious and political systems shouldn’t be considered as separate from each other, for example in ancient Egypt empire was ruled by the god-kings. Furthermore in Sumerian temples in the interior part there was an altar made for giving sacrifice to feed the god. From my own observations, I understand the difference between today’s architecture and the ancient architecture. Between the 3000-1500 BC. Architecture was used as a tool that amazed people and forced them to obey the religion and the gods with its interesting geometrical forms, huge elements and wall ornaments rather than thinking how can I design a structure to facilitate the daily life and make it functional like we do in this modern age. Ziggurats and Pyramids are the two structures discussed to examine this issue.

Ziggurat means stairways to heaven, it’s been believed as a center of the world by Sumerians. It has a layered structure with a number ranging from 2 to 7. Ziggurats, which characteristically resemble the pyramids but are separated by some structural differences, have a flat structure unlike the pyramids. There are temples in the top layer of the Ziggurats and it has been surrounded by the ramps to climb these temples.

Pyramids symbolizes continuity of the day life into other life. What I notice when I reading this article is in Harappan culture, they built high walls to protect the people from flood rather than building high religious temples just for reverends into the city. People aware of the history science in this age and they started to build monumental structures. The structures in this period was made of natural materials like stone of course but the perception of architecture away from taking nature as an example.

Urban elite created a division of labor for complex tasks and it created a written language for agricultural products. City itself became a type of language they discovered the potential of reproducible arch system that has hierarchy in its walls, water management in canals, circulation of streets. In the city of Ur houses were single structures of mud brick with several rooms wrapped around the open court. The Mesopotamian courtyard house was the primary cell of the city.

Condition to produce these architectural systems like dikes and canals lead social system for example in Sumerian elites have been separated by architects by designing saved enclosures. The valley temple of Khafre has been created with indirect passages to a T-shaped hypostyle hall which full of columns, there are 23 columns in that room and each one represents the one organ of his body.

Pyramids are another crucial structural design for these ages. Giza the monuments of hope has a concept of rays of the sun because god-king of ancient Egypt Ra wanted rays as a ramp under his feet. We do not have any document or evidence for explaining how the Giza was constructed but I totally agree with the idea of the Giza is a result of religious devotion which based on pressure
Although the rugged landscape of the Nile River and its surroundings makes it difficult for construction orthogonal planning come naturally, there are also disadvantages which came from the quality of the desert/sand. Pyramid’s great mass differ a fitting response to the flatness of the desert. Imhotep is mentioned in this article not because he is the high priest of RA because of he is regarded as the first architect in history. He is the designer of the step pyramid, He may also have been responsible for the first known use of stone columns to support a building.